Vietnam – China Diplomatic Relations in the 16th – 17th Centuries: Envoy Missions of the Lê Trung Hưng Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty

After the overthrow of the Mạc dynasty in 1592, the Lê Trung Hưng dynasty dispatched its first envoy mission to Ming China in 1597, carrying out the duties of paying tribute and requesting investiture, thereby re-establishing diplomatic relations. From this initial mission until 1646, the Lê Trung Hưng dynasty sent a total of 15 envoy missions to the Ming, performing various responsibilities, including requesting investiture, presenting tribute, expressing gratitude, and celebrating the Ming emperor’s enthronement. Among these, requesting investiture and paying tribute were the most central and recurring objectives.Drawing upon Vietnamese historical manuscripts and the Ming Shilu (Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty), this article analyzes the envoy missions of the Lê Trung Hưng dynasty in terms of their number, duties, tribute goods, organizational structure, and the backgrounds of the envoys. It clarifies the frequency and purposes of these missions, the characteristics of the diplomatic personnel selected by the dynasty, and the political significance of envoy activities in the restoration and consolidation of the dynasty. It also shows that these missions were not merely routine diplomatic procedures but an important means through which the dynasty sought legitimacy in its relations with Ming China. Through these missions, the article examines Vietnam–China diplomatic relations in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and contributes to a better understanding of tributary diplomacy under the Lê Trung Hưng dynasty.