The digital mirage: Official assertions vs. ground realities of digital literacy in Kazakhstan

Digital literacy has become increasingly important for participation in digital societies, yet empirical evidence from Kazakhstan remains limited. This study examines perceived digital literacy and its determinants among adults in Astana and selected rural districts of the Akmola region using UNESCO's Digital Literacy Global Framework (DLGF). A quantitative survey of 250 respondents was conducted between June and October 2023 using online and face-to-face data collection. Digital literacy was measured through self-assessment and therefore reflects perceived rather than objectively demonstrated competence. The findings show substantial variation across the study sample. Older adults and rural residents reported significantly lower levels of digital literacy, whereas cybersecurity awareness was positively associated with perceived competence. Educational attainment, gender, and ICT device ownership were not significant predictors after controlling for other factors. Higher digital literacy was also associated with greater use of online government services. Although the average digital literacy score differed from official national estimates, the measures rely on different assessment approaches and are not directly comparable. The study refines second-level digital divide research by distinguishing technological access from digital capability, demonstrates the analytical value of the DLGF in a rapidly digitalizing middle-income context, and highlights the non-equivalence of self-reported, performance-based, and administrative measures of digital literacy.