Teaching disability or teaching inclusion? A comparative content analysis of introductory adapted physical education courses in Taiwan

Inclusive education has become a global imperative, yet physical education teacher education (PETE) programs remain inadequately prepared to meet this mandate. This study examines Taiwan's adapted physical education (APE) course syllabi through systematic content analysis of 18 syllabi from 12 teacher preparation universities, representing the first empirical investigation of APE curricula in East Asia. Most Taiwanese PETE programs offer only one introductory APE course, making its content critically influential in shaping future teachers’ competencies. We employed multi-stage qualitative coding with rigorous internal peer audit and external expert consultation to analyze course objectives, content topics, pedagogical paradigms, assessment methods, and practicum arrangements. Three major gaps emerged. Courses predominantly emphasized the medical model, with 33.3% of content devoted to disability categories while social-model strategies received minimal coverage (Universal Design for Learning: 0.4%; inclusion: 1.5%). Instructional strategies appeared fragmented rather than systematically integrated. 38.9% of courses included no hands-on experiences with disabled students. Taiwan's APE curriculum leans heavily toward disability-specific content, with comparatively limited attention to inclusive pedagogical strategies, raising questions about whether current PETE programs adequately prepare pre-service teachers for diverse classrooms. We recommend curricular rebalancing toward inclusive strategies, strengthening practicum requirements, and adopting an Infusion Model to embed inclusive competencies throughout PETE curricula rather than confining them to a single isolated course.