Sustainable Biodegradation of Antibiotics: Multidimensional Perspectives on Compost Biostimulation Strategies, Sludge Treatment and Enzymatic Biocatalysis

ABSTRACT

Antibiotic contamination in water, soil and waste has intensified along with the spread of resistance genes. Three biological treatment approaches such as composting, sludge treatment and enzymatic degradation were compared in this review, focusing on removal mechanisms, operational limits and residual risks from by‐products. Previous assessments often addressed these technologies separately or used removal efficiency as the sole metric. However, high parent‐compound removal does not guarantee reduced risk because metabolites may persist and resistance genes can rebound after land application. Among the three, enzymatic oxidation degrades persistent antibiotics rapidly but is constrained by instability and cost. Immobilization on natural polymers, synthetic matrices or nanomaterials can enhance stability and reusability. A cross‐technology comparison reveals that data on by‐product formation and removal kinetics are scarce and that standardized safety criteria accounting for metabolites are lacking. This review aims to guide selection of treatment strategies that balance degradation with ecological safety.