Spatial Insights into the Carbon and Environmental Footprint of Mediterranean Wheat: Integrating Life Cycle Assessment and Data Envelopment Analysis for Land-System Climate Resilience

Rainfed wheat covers much of the semi-arid Mediterranean, yet its environmental cost is rarely measured at the field scale where management decisions are made. This study assesses the carbon and environmental footprint of rainfed wheat in the Mygdonia Basin, Northern Greece, drawing on a primary dataset of 1385 fields (~976 ha). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was coupled with Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to link environmental performance with technical efficiency. Carbon footprint ranged from 2030 to 3110 kg CO2e ha−1, revealing pronounced spatial variability across management systems. Excess nitrogen fertilization emerged as the principal driver of greenhouse gas emissions, acidification, and eutrophication in lowland systems. High-altitude systems showed lower impacts per hectare, an advantage partly offset by higher terrestrial ecotoxicity from increased machinery use. DEA revealed widespread technical inefficiency, most fields scoring between 0.70 and 0.90, with input slacks tracing this to excess nitrogen and seed. The convergence of LCA and DEA findings identifies nitrogen management as the key leverage point for improving environmental and technical performance without compromising productivity. The findings support spatially differentiated interventions under the Common Agricultural Policy, promoting precision nutrient management and conservation-oriented practices to strengthen the resilience of Mediterranean agroecosystems.