Seasonal Associations Between Park Environments and User Emotions: Evidence from Six Spaces in Jiefang Park, Wuhan, China

Urban parks contribute to emotional well-being, yet the relationship among park environments, users’ perceptions, recreational activities, and emotions across seasons remains insufficiently understood. Using Jiefang Park in Wuhan, China, as a case study, this study analyzed 2233 valid questionnaires from four-season field surveys across six surveyed spaces, together with measured spatial environmental data. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to examine the associations and interaction effects of landscape perception, thermal perception, recreational activities, and positive and negative emotions. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to account for respondents nested within 24 space-season units and examine cross-level statistical indirect associations. Emotional responses varied across seasons and among the six surveyed locations. The surveyed lawn space showed the highest positive-emotion and lowest negative-emotion scores, whereas the surveyed fitness activity space had the highest negative-emotion score. The surveyed fitness activity and waterfront spaces displayed smaller seasonal fluctuations. Thermal and visual perceptions were consistently associated with emotional responses in the season-specific models. Measurement invariance was not established, so path coefficients were not formally compared. Spatial environmental characteristics showed significant indirect associations with emotions mainly through perceptual variables, whereas indirect associations through recreational activities were not significant. Vegetation color richness showed favorable indirect associations, while green view, pavement visibility, and fitness facility quantity showed adverse indirect associations at the surveyed locations. These findings suggest that seasonally responsive park design should emphasize perceptual quality, thermal adaptability, and context-sensitive spatial configuration.