3D Food Printing and Extrusion of Spirulina ‐Enriched Foods: A Bibliometric and Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Three‐dimensional (3D) food printing is a transformative platform for developing personalized, functional, and sustainable foods, yet its industrial adoption remains limited by rheological complexity, sensory barriers, and scalability constraints. This review examines Spirulina spp. enriched, extruded, and 3D‐printed snacks, cookies, pasta, and meat analogues as a model for integrating microalgae into advanced food manufacturing. A bibliometric analysis of 30 studies drawn from multiple databases, supported by a systematic literature review, mapped global research trends, keyword networks, and alignment with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Spirulina spp. consistently enhances protein content, antioxidant activity, and mineral density across product formats, with optimal inclusion ranges of 2%–8% for extrusion and 2%–6% for 3D printing under non‐encapsulated conditions. Rheological analysis identifies shear thinning behavior, viscoelastic recovery, and thixotropic recovery as critical determinants of printability; residue‐based inks, microencapsulation, and hydrocolloid optimization have demonstrated quantified improvements in structural stability and print accuracy. Sensory acceptance is constrained by intense pigmentation and marine flavor, with coaxial extrusion, microencapsulation, and matrix masking identified as the most effective mitigation strategies across the reviewed studies. International collaboration is led by Brazil, India, Portugal, and Spain, with the field transitioning toward an early stage of maturity according to bibliometric life cycle modeling. Important gaps persist in rheological standardization, life‐cycle assessment, and consumer research, dimensions required to bridge current laboratory advances with industrial adoption and broader food system impact.