Scorpions of the United States: species, distribution, ecology, and management

Abstract

Scorpions represent an ecologically important arthropod lineage, yet their diversity, biology, and management in the United States remain incompletely synthesized. With origins more than 430 million years ago, scorpions have diversified into roughly 24 families and over 2,900 species worldwide, occupying habitats from deserts to forests. In US ecosystems, scorpions function as both predators and prey, regulating arthropod communities while supporting higher trophic levels. Although research on venom biology, taxonomy, and human–scorpion interactions has expanded, national-scale treatments of scorpion systematics, distributions, ecology, conservation, and management are lacking. Here, we document 109 scorpion species in 22 genera in 6 families in the United States: Anuroctonidae, Buthidae, Diplocentridae, Hadruridae, Superstitioniidae, and Vaejovidae, and summarize family-level morphology, species richness, habitat associations, and geographic ranges, highlighting patterns of endemism, restricted distributions, and ongoing taxonomic change. We review key aspects of scorpion ecology, behavior, and venom severity, and outline identification features useful for natural resource professionals and the public. We discuss stings by scorpions and human health, as well as management and conservation considerations, including habitat alteration, human–wildlife interactions, and the need for updated distributional and ecological data. This synthesis aims to improve awareness of scorpion diversity and ecological roles in the United States and support future research and management efforts.