Quarantine phytosanitary treatment of regulated commodities and packaging with controlled atmospheres and combined fumigants: a quantitative review of import and export applications

. Stricter phytosanitary requirements, the phase-out of methyl bromide and the spread of pest resistance to phosphine are driving the search for alternatives to quarantine phytosanitary treatment (QPT). The aim of this review is to systematize the global experience (2006–2025) on the use of controlled atmospheres (CA), inert gases and their mixtures with fumigants for disinfesting imported commodities and preparing domestic goods for export. Based on a consolidated database of experimental data, a quantitative comparison of the efficiency of gas treatment groups was performed, species × environment models were built, and species were ranked by relative tolerance. The highest reliability of complete control is provided by physical regimes (vacuum, high‑pressure CO₂), mixtures of ethyl formate with CO₂, and fumigant mixtures with CO₂/N₂, which reliably kill the most tolerant stages, including phosphine‑resistant populations. For packaging and timber, quarantine security is provided by structural sulfuryl fluoride, ethanedinitrile and ISPM 15 regimes. PH₃ + CO₂ (resistance overcoming) and ethyl formate with CO₂ (logistics integration) are recognized as ready for scaling; NO and ozone form a «green» reserve with zero residues, requiring industrial generators and harmonized regulations.