Polysaccharide Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting: A Guide to Translation

Polysaccharide-based hydrogels offer versatile platforms for three-dimensional bioprinting, but translation requires coordinated assessment of formulation, processing, and biological performance. This narrative review connects backbone chemistry and functionalization with rheology, crosslinking, printing modality, cellular responses, and manufacturing requirements. It examines alginate, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, cellulose derivatives, gellan gum, and complementary polysaccharides, distinguishing cell-laden bioinks from acellular biomaterial inks and supporting materials. A study-specific framework separates material feasibility, cell-laden printing, functional in vitro outcomes, preclinical evaluation, and preliminary human feasibility without assigning maturity scores to entire material families. Print fidelity and cellular remodeling impose competing requirements whose balance is formulation- and application-dependent. Dual or sequential crosslinking, dynamic networks, and support-bath printing provide complementary approaches rather than a universal solution. Inconsistent reporting limits cross-study comparison; a minimum reporting set is therefore proposed. Sterilization, raw-material variability, quality control, long-term safety, and regulatory classification are considered alongside formulation design. Future priorities include tissue-appropriate viscoelasticity, granular architectures, hierarchical vascularization, and reproducible data-driven optimization. Clinical translation will require stronger links between manufacturing reproducibility and sustained biological function, rather than printing accuracy alone.