Plant-mediated reduced graphene oxide nanoparticles in polyvinyl-alcohol hydrogels: A smart dressing for controlled drug delivery in wound healing

Chronic and acute wounds remain a major clinical challenge, requiring biomaterials that accelerate tissue repair while preventing infection. In this study, we introduce a green-synthesized reduced graphene oxide/polyvinyl alcohol (RGO/PVA) hydrogel as a multifunctional solution for enhanced wound healing. Graphene oxide (GO) was synthesized via a modified Hummers’ method and reduced using P. ginseng extract to obtain RGO. RGO/PVA nanocomposite hydrogels were prepared through repeated freeze–thaw cross-linking. Physicochemical characterization was performed using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Biological evaluations included swelling and gel-fraction analysis, cytotoxicity testing on human adult low calcium tolerant keratinocytes (HaCaT) cells, and in vivo wound-healing studies supported by histopathology. HR-TEM confirmed the exfoliation of graphite into few-layer GO sheets and the effective reduction to RGO, characterized by plate-like, wrinkled morphologies that prevent restacking. FTIR spectra demonstrated the disappearance of oxygen-related functional groups, while XRD revealed a shift from the GO to the RGO, with further reduction in interlayer spacing in RGO/PVA composites. Raman analysis indicated partial restoration of graphitic domains and strong interfacial interactions between RGO and PVA chains. SEM imaging showed a transition from broad pore sizes in pristine PVA to a more compact, uniform porous network in RGO/PVA, supporting enhanced mechanical integrity. In vivo , RGO/PVA treatment achieved complete epithelialization within 10 days, accompanied by epidermis formation, angiogenesis, collagen deposition, and fibroblast proliferation. The green-synthesized RGO/PVA hydrogel demonstrates superior biocompatibility and accelerated wound-healing potential. These findings highlight its promise as a next-generation wound-dressing material that integrates natural phytochemical reduction with enhanced tissue regeneration.