Phrasal Verb Use and Development Among Japanese Learners of English

Phrasal verbs are a frequent and essential feature of English vocabulary. However, they pose persistent challenges for second language (L2) learners, particularly those from verb-framed languages like Japanese, due to structural and semantic differences. While their difficulty is well established, little is known about how phrasal verb usage develops across different proficiency levels in authentic learner writing. This corpus-based study examines how Japanese learners of English use phrasal verbs across different proficiency levels, focusing on overall frequency, semantic category distribution, and the frequency of phrasal verb sense usage. Drawing on the International Corpus Network of Asian Learners of English (ICNALE) Written Essays subcorpus, we analyzed 400 learner essays and compared phrasal verb usage to that of native speakers. Phrasal verbs were classified by semantic type (literal, aspectual, idiomatic) and by sense frequency, based on the Phrasal Verb Pedagogical (PHaVE) List. Proficiency had only a modest impact on phrasal verb usage patterns. Learners at higher levels used a slightly broader range of phrasal verbs, but overall usage remained well below native speaker levels, with limited shifts in semantic category or use of lower-frequency senses. The findings suggest that typological differences between Japanese and English may continue to shape phrasal verb usage patterns, with proficiency alone insufficient to drive native-like development. The study highlights the need for instruction that explicitly targets phrasal verb semantics, polysemy of phrasal verbs, and contextually appropriate usage of phrasal verbs to support L2 production that more closely resembles that of native speakers.