Phosphorus Fertilizer Technologies for Sustainable Phosphorus Management: From Soil Dynamics to Emerging Innovations

Phosphorus (P) is essential for crop growth and productivity, but its management in agriculture faces major challenges related to finite phosphate rock resources, low phosphorus use efficiency (PUE), soil P accumulation, and P losses to surface water bodies leading to eutrophication. This review examines emerging phosphorus fertilizer technologies designed to improve P availability and use efficiency while supporting sustainable crop production. The review summarizes the main processes governing P dynamics in soil–plant systems and highlights the influence of soil pH, organic matter, clay content, moisture, and temperature on P availability. The complementary roles of phosphorus acquisition efficiency (PAE) and phosphorus utilization efficiency (PUE) in crop P efficiency are also discussed. Four emerging fertilizer categories are comparatively assessed: controlled- and slow-release P fertilizers, nano-P fertilizers, recovered and recycled P fertilizers, and smart P fertilizers. The analysis highlights their distinct principles, advantages, limitations, and development status. Controlled- and slow-release fertilizers regulate P release, nano-P fertilizers enhance P delivery, recovered and recycled fertilizers support resource circularity, while smart P fertilizers incorporate responsive functions for targeted P availability. The comparative assessment indicates that no single technology is universally superior, as their effectiveness depends on soil conditions, crop requirements, and specific management objectives. Finally, the review emphasizes the importance of integrating soil P dynamics, crop P efficiency, and fertilizer innovation to improve P management and support sustainable crop production.