Performance and challenges of stone columns for liquefaction mitigation: a comprehensive review

Stone columns are an effective ground improvement technique for mitigating liquefaction hazards in seismically active regions. This review critically evaluates the mechanisms, applications, and limitations of stone columns through analysis of experimental studies, numerical simulations, and field case histories. The reinforcement effects of stone columns, including enhanced drainage, soil densification, and stress redistribution, are examined. Key design parameters influencing stone column efficacy, such as area replacement ratio and column spacing, are discussed. While stone columns have demonstrated potential in reducing liquefaction-induced deformations, their performance depends on site-specific conditions and design configurations. Challenges associated with stone column implementation, such as clogging and bulging failure under seismic loading, are assessed. Recent advancements in geosynthetic encasement technology show promise in enhancing column stability and drainage capacity. Future research priorities include the development of comprehensive design guidelines, establishment of performance databases, and validation of numerical models through collaborative efforts between researchers and practitioners. This review provides valuable insights to guide the optimisation of stone column technology for enhancing infrastructure resilience in earthquake-prone regions.