Part 2: the challenges and limitations of artificial intelligence in surgery

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into surgical practice is advancing rapidly, offering the potential to enhance clinical decision-making, minimize complications, and optimize screening processes. However, the widespread adoption of AI faces significant challenges. High implementation costs, algorithmic bias, and the risk of over-reliance on AI systems present notable barriers. Additionally, regulatory frameworks struggle to keep pace with the rapidly evolving nature of AI, raising concerns about safety and ethical oversight. Potential solutions include developing high-quality labeled datasets, creating standardized validation pathways, strengthening regulatory frameworks, and fostering ethical guidelines to ensure safe, effective, and responsible adoption of AI in modern surgical practice. By examining the ethical, financial, and regulatory barriers, this review provides a comprehensive and focused synthesis of the critical challenges hindering the incorporation of AI into surgery and begins to outline possible pathways toward safer and more effective implementation.