Optimizing Restoration Based on Ecological Targets Yields Both Ecological and Social Gains

Abstract

Ecosystem restoration is a critical strategy for reviving degraded ecosystems to deliver mutual benefits to the nature and society. However, it remains a critical gap how spatial optimization can simultaneously achieve maximum benefits for different stakeholder groups by targeting multiple ecological objectives. To inform this issue, we proposed a strategic spatial optimization that balances trade‐offs among four ecosystem service goals (i.e., carbon stock, extinction risk, water quality regulation, and air quality regulation) and associated restoration costs, while improving ecological outcomes and expanding the population of beneficiaries. Experimental results across 171,161 spatial units using 784 weighted combination scenarios show that, within the top 5% priority areas, the Max Multiple Benefit/Cost achieves 5.06 tons of carbon storage, avoids 6.44 expected biodiversity extinctions, yields 1.64 tons of water quality regulation and 1.36 tons of air quality regulation, at a cost of 3.07 USD. By defining the spatial extent of ecological beneficiaries through spatial diffusion, overlaying, and upstream–downstream relationships, we estimated that beneficiaries from water quality regulation and air quality regulation could reach 637 million and 330 million people, which is 1.29–3.44 times higher than those achieved under single‐objective scenarios. Nevertheless, this expected outcome also bears with land losses for approximately 588,000 people, who are more likely to live in regions with low accessibility, underdeveloped economies, and a higher proportion of ethnic minorities. The findings highlight the critical need to balance multiple ecological goals while considering both beneficiaries and adversely affected populations in restoration implementation.