Neurodivergence as a Predictor of School Exclusion: Findings From a Large School-Based Survey
Lili Bokor, Alice M.G. Quinton, Simona Skripkauskaite, OxWell Study Team, Mina Fazel, Francesca HappéBackground
School exclusion is linked to poor educational, social, and health outcomes. This study explored self-reported school exclusion among self-identified neurodivergent (e.g. autistic and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]) versus neurotypical peers.
Methods
Cross-sectional data came from the 2023 OxWell Student Survey of 15,012 secondary school pupils (aged 11–19 years) in England. Participants self-identified as neurodivergent (
Results
Neurodivergent students were nearly four times more likely to report exclusion (14.6% vs. 4.1%), and more likely to report permanent exclusion specifically (2.3% vs. 0.4%) than neurotypical peers. Elevated risk persisted across genders and school years. SEN support was not associated with reduced exclusion among neurodivergent students. Neurodivergence remained an independent predictor of exclusion after accounting for gender, ethnicity, age, and socio-economic deprivation; this estimated effect was even higher for permanent exclusion specifically (odds ratio = 4.75).
Conclusions
Neurodivergent young people experience disproportionately high exclusion rates, representing a particularly vulnerable group. Findings highlight the need to identify modifiable factors that could inform policy and practice to reduce exclusion.
Lay Abstract
Previous research has shown that autistic students and students with ADHD are more likely to experience difficulties at school, including a higher risk of school exclusion. However, this work has largely focused on specific diagnoses, meaning that many young people who think and learn differently, particularly those without a formal diagnosis or who do not use diagnostic labels, are often overlooked. This study examines school exclusion in relation to self-identified neurodivergence using a large national survey of secondary school students in England. Instead of asking about specific conditions, students were asked whether they considered themselves neurodivergent, reflecting current thinking in the neurodiversity field and allowing a broader range of experiences to be included. The study explored both factors linked to a higher risk of exclusion and factors that might help protect against it, while also considering differences in students’ backgrounds, such as gender, ethnicity, and experiences of special educational needs (SEN) support at school. The findings show that students who identify as neurodivergent are more likely to be excluded from school, highlighting the need for change across education systems. For schools, this emphasises the importance of recognising and responding to students’ needs early, treating disruptive behaviour as a sign that a student needs more support rather than grounds for punishment, and ensuring that SEN support is timely, appropriate, and tailored to individual needs – rather than relying solely on formal diagnoses to determine who receives that support. For researchers, the results point to looking beyond specific diagnoses to better understand the wider range of neurodivergent experiences and the factors that increase or reduce the risk of exclusion. For policymakers, the findings support the development of policies that prioritise early support and effective school-based practices to reduce preventable school exclusion and improve outcomes for neurodivergent young people.