Mitochondrial dynamics and ion channel regulation of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in metabolic flexibility and therapeutic targeting

Abstract

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) constitute a rare yet highly adaptable tumour subpopulation that drives tumour initiation, intratumorally heterogeneity, metastasis, recurrence, and therapy resistance. Emerging evidence indicates that mitochondrial dynamics and mitochondrial ion signalling form an interconnected regulatory network that enables CSCs to remodel their metabolic and signalling states in response to environmental and therapeutic stress. Mitochondrial architectural remodelling through fission, fusion, biogenesis, and mitophagy cooperates closely with mitochondrial Ca2+ signalling and ion transport systems, including the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU), voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs), and mitochondrial K+ channels, to regulate mitochondrial membrane potential, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), reactive oxygen species (ROS) signalling, and bioenergetic adaptation. Selected plasma membrane and ER-associated ion channels further contribute by modulating mitochondrial signalling pathways. Together, these processes govern CSC plasticity, adaptive stress tolerance, and stemness-associated programs, facilitating survival under hypoxia, nutrient deprivation, and anticancer therapy. In this review, we explore how mitochondrial dynamics and ion signalling converge to shape CSC metabolic flexibility and therapeutic resistance. We further discuss emerging diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities targeting mitochondrial dynamics–ion signalling crosstalk, while highlighting key challenges, including CSC heterogeneity, metabolic adaptability, and the need for selective strategies capable of eliminating CSCs while sparing normal stem-cell populations.