Microplastics Toxicity and Life‐Threatening Impact on the Arabian Gulf: A Critical Review

ABSTRACT

Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a pervasive pollutant in marine environments worldwide, yet the Arabian Gulf remains underrepresented in global assessments despite its ecological and economic significance. The estimated mass of MPs entering the water of the Gulf ranged from 155 to 413.4 kt per year. This review synthesizes peer‐reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2024, covering seawater, sediments, and biota. Reported concentrations vary considerably: seawater ranged from 0–3 MPs/m ³ in Qatar to 12,000 MPs/m3 in Kuwait, while sediments concentrations reached up to 665 MPs/kg in Oman and as many as 195,104 particles at Iranian hotspots. In biota, MPs were frequently detected in fish and prawns, with up to 828 particles recorded in digestive tracts and 18.5 MPs/10 g in edible muscle tissues. Fibers and fragments dominate across all matrices, with polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) as the most common polymers. Furthermore, legislation and regulations available on the regional and national level to reduce the amount of marine litter including plastics and MPs were discussed. Microplastics in the Gulf are examined across four themes: (1) source and pathway, (2) classification, (3) occurrence and fate, and (4) environmental impacts and future risks. Cross‐study comparison reveals spatial and temporal variability, contradictory biotic load estimates across countries, and significant methodological inconsistencies that limit data comparability. Critical knowledge gaps persist, including the absence of Gulf‐specific studies on lower trophic levels, ecotoxicological thresholds, and quantitative human exposure models. Although Gulf states have introduced measures such as single‐use plastic bag bans, legislation remains fragmented, compliance data are scarce, and certain policy approaches (notably the reliance on oxo‐degradable plastics) are inconsistent with international best practice. The Gulf's distinctive characteristics including its semi‐enclosed hydrology, extreme salinity and temperature, and shared governance challenges position it as both a natural laboratory for studying microplastic fate and transport and a potential testbed for regional policy harmonization. Insights from this region can inform management strategies for other enclosed and semi‐enclosed seas worldwide.