Micro- and Nanoplastics: Pathways of Food Contamination and Human Exposure Along the Farm-to-Table Chain

Micro and nanoplastics (MNPs), defined as particles under 5 mm down to the submicron scale (<1 µm or 1–1000 nm), have shifted from an environmental concern into a general potential contaminant of our global food supply. As plastic production escalates, the fragmentation process disperses particles across soils, water bodies and the atmosphere, resulting in their reported detection in a variety of food products and, in some studies, in human biological matrices including the bloodstream to major organs. However, confirming their presence is not equivalent to tracing their journey. Current scientific understanding of how these contaminants migrate remains uncertain, since most studies focus on isolated sources rather than the interconnected stages of production and exposure. To address this, we propose the Farm-to-Table Microplastic Exposure Cascade (FT-MPEC), an integrated concept designed to describe the potential progressive accumulation of MNPs across the food continuum. This review synthesizes the trajectory of particles from primary production into the food chain, evaluating potential transfer pathways during post-harvest handling, industrial processing and domestic preparation. By mapping these routes, we identify critical knowledge gaps and research priorities necessary to improve future monitoring, exposure assessment and mitigation strategies for public health.