Manufacturing of Perovskite Solar Cells: Materials, Processing Strategies, and Pathways to Scalable Production

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as one of the most rapidly advancing photovoltaic technologies of the past decade, progressing from the initial demonstration of 3.8% power conversion efficiency (PCE) in 2009 to certified single-junction efficiencies exceeding 26% and perovskite–silicon tandem efficiencies exceeding 33.9% as of 2024. Their appeal resides in the combination of a broadly tunable bandgap achieved through compositional engineering of the ABX3 perovskite crystal structure, compatibility with low-temperature solution processing, and the potential for manufacturing costs substantially below those of silicon photovoltaics. However, the translation of laboratory-scale performance to commercially viable modules at industrial throughput remains the central challenge in the field. This review provides a comprehensive and critically organized account of PSC manufacturing, spanning device architectures and material requirements, scalable deposition and coating technologies, charge transport layer integration and interface engineering, process control and crystallization strategies, post-treatment methods, artificial intelligence and machine learning-assisted manufacturing, module fabrication and encapsulation, advanced tandem and flexible device configurations, green chemistry and circular lifecycle strategies, and the critical barriers to commercialization. The review concludes with a strategic assessment of the technological, regulatory, and economic requirements for PSC technology to transition from pilot-scale demonstration to utility-scale deployment.