Maize Anthocyanins: Biosynthesis, Regulatory Networks, and Breeding for Crop Improvement
Hariprasad Jeeva, Vignesh Selvam, Shivakumar Ravichandran, Indhu S M, Karthikeyan Adhimoolam, Vellaikumar Sampathrajan, Thirusenduraselvi Duraisamy, Kumari Vinodhana Natarajan, Senthil NatesanABSTRACT
Background and Objectives
Maize ( Zea mays L.) is an important model for studying flavonoid biosynthesis and enhancing cereal nutritional value. Its diverse anthocyanin pigmentation across kernels, vegetative, and reproductive tissues makes it especially valuable. This review summarizes anthocyanin chemistry, genetic regulation, environmental influences, breeding strategies, and opportunities to develop anthocyanin‐enriched maize.
Findings
Maize anthocyanins occur predominantly as glycosides of cyanidin, pelargonidin, and peonidin, with their biosynthesis regulated through coordinated interactions between structural and regulatory genes. The MYB–bHLH–WD40 (MBW) transcriptional complex plays a central role, where MYB transcription factors ( c1 and pl1 ) and bHLH regulators ( r1/b1 family) control tissue‐specific and developmental anthocyanin accumulation. The pr1 locus, encoding flavonoid 3′‐hydroxylase, directs pigment composition by determining cyanidin‐derived purple or pelargonidin‐derived red anthocyanins. Environmental factors, including light, temperature, and nutrient availability, further influence anthocyanin biosynthesis through gene expression. Recent advances in molecular breeding and marker‐assisted selection have enabled the identification and incorporation of favorable alleles, facilitating the development of anthocyanin‐rich maize with improved nutritional value and genetic stability.
Conclusion
Coordinated genetic regulation via the MBW complex and the pr1 metabolic switch, together with environmental modulation, governs anthocyanin diversity in maize. Marker‐assisted breeding enables efficient introgression of favorable anthocyanin traits into elite germplasm, overcoming historical linkage drag and enhancing biofortification.
Significance and Novelty
This review highlights the potential for developing anthocyanin‐enriched maize as a functional food and a sustainable alternative source of natural colorants.