Lead–Acid Batteries

Lead–acid batteries (LABs), a classic rechargeable electrochemical energy storage technology, remain vital in the automotive industry, renewable energy, and backup power systems owing to affordability, recyclability, and mature production. LABs operate via reversible sulfation reactions (Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 ⇌ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O) using PbO2 positive electrodes, Pb negative electrodes, and sulfuric acid electrolyte. However, challenges persist, including capacity degradation from irreversible sulfation, grid corrosion, hydrogen/oxygen evolution, and electrolyte loss and stratification. Recent advances address these challenges through grid composition and structure optimization, lead paste formula optimization, additive screening, curing and forming process improvements. Environmental concerns regarding lead pollution, mitigated by high recycling rates driven by strict regulations, continue to drive innovations in both pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recycling, alongside bio-remediation research. Owing to their cost advantage per kW h, LABs remain a preferred solution for renewable energy storage and hybrid power systems, particularly in off-grid applications and regions with less developed power infrastructure. Ongoing research focuses on bipolar designs, redox flow systems, and novel electrodes to meet future demands sustainably. This chapter comprehensively reviews the fundamental structure, electrochemical principles, manufacturing processes, performance optimization technologies, failure modes and improvement strategies, as well as the contemporary challenges and opportunities confronting LABs in the modern energy storage landscape.