Language Teachers’ and Stakeholders’ Perceptions Towards Artificial Intelligence: Concerns on Job Displacement, Ethics, and Regulation

This paper examines language teachers’ and key stakeholders’ perceptions of the influence of AI on language education in Croatia, Poland, and Türkiye, particularly in relation to AI skills, AI integration, AI-related employment, AI-related risks and benefits for society, and policy needs. 156 language teachers completed a structured online questionnaire, and six semi-structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders in each of the three countries. Results highlight that language teachers generally have a positive attitude toward AI in language education and society, and teachers’ age is found to be the strongest predictor of their optimism. Regarding the use of AI, teachers can only act as operators, not developers, with the main concerns being ethical risks, privacy, data protection, and inadequate relevant training. Cross-national differences are evident, with Croatian teachers showing greater support for regulatory oversight. While stakeholders recognize the transformative potential of AI, they emphasize issues of safety, cost, and institutional preparedness. They illustrate the need for collaborative, multi-perspective approaches, as well as for cementing the relationship between education and industry to support responsible and effective AI integration.