Labor of the Bhikkhuni Sangha: Communal Work as Female Buddhist Practice

This study explores the role of labor as Buddhist practice within the Korean bhikkhuni sangha, with particular attention to ulryeok (communal labor). Bhikkhuni is not a term for a general female Buddhist practitioner, but a technical Buddhist term referring to a woman who has formally undertaken full ordination (a fully ordained Buddhist nun). Unlike ordinary labor, which is primarily aimed at livelihood, Buddhist labor in the context of the Korean monastic community integrates personal practice with communal life. This study, drawing on the Madhyama Āgama, Vinaya regulations, and Baizhang Huaihai’s maxim “A day without work is a day without food,” examines how the Buddha’s participation in communal labor is depicted in early Buddhist texts and how such practices were institutionalized and interpreted within the Vinaya tradition. Furthermore, by comparing the duty assignment system of the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya with the duty roster system of the Yongsangbang at Unmunsa Monastery, the study explores how traditions of labor practice have been transmitted and reinterpreted within the specific historical and cultural contexts of Chinese and Korean Buddhism. The findings show that communal labor (ullyeok) functions to sustain both communal life and spiritual practice, operating as a form of collective discipline within the Korean monastic tradition. Principles of the early Vinaya tradition remain reflected in Unmunsa’s organizational system today, demonstrating that interpretations of Buddhist labor practice formed in historical contexts continue to shape contemporary Korean monastic culture.