Kengsha 坑杀 and the “Buried Alive” Zhao Soldiers: The Legalist Context of the Outcome of the Battle of Changping in 260 BCE

This article examines the Battle of Changping (260 BCE), a decisive Warring States period engagement in which Zhao suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Qin, foreshadowing Zhao’s eventual collapse. Drawing on ancient Chinese sources (Springs and Autumns of Mr. Lü, The Book of Lord Shang, Commentary on the Waterways Classic, Universal Geography of the Taiping Era, the dictionary Approach to the Classics, Geographical Description of Shanxi from the Chenghua era), archaeological data (burials of Zhao soldiers), and field studies conducted in March and August 2025 in and around Gaoping City, PRC – combined with recent historiographical advances – the authors highlight the role of Legalism in the mass killing of Zhao prisoners, which was central to the battle's significance. Building on the research of Chinese scholars Zhi Jian and Zhang Runze, the work critically reexamines the term kengsha 坑杀, commonly interpreted as the Qin army's live burial of 450,000 Zhao troops. In reality, the term appears to denote systematic extermination of captives followed by the construction of mounds from enemy heads – jingguan 京观 – and should be read as gangsha. This practice was likely motivated by the need to record military achievements under the Legalist rank-based system, as well as to intimidate adversaries. One such structure, referred to in sources as the "Bai Qi Platform", stood for centuries near Gukou Village, Gaoping. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the Skull Temple was erected over it, becoming a site of veneration for warriors who perished in the battle.