Inks and Pigments in Greek Codices of the Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Period: Material Analysis and Insights into Scribal and Artistic Practices

Abstract

This study provides a material-based investigation into the transition of Greek manuscript production from the 11th through the 18th centuries, focusing on four examples preserved in the Pezaros’ Collection of the Historical and Paleographic Archive of the National Bank of Greece (MIET). Despite the advent of print technology during this period, manuscript production persisted as a living continuation of Byzantine calligraphic and illumination traditions, particularly within monastic centres such as Mount Athos, Epirus, and Crete. Advanced non-invasive and micro-analytical techniques (multispectral imaging and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS)) were employed to investigate traditional Byzantine practices. The study reconstructs the technical and cultural context of Byzantine and post-Byzantine manuscript production, highlighting the ways in which copyists and illuminators balanced continuity with adaptation. The research contributes to a deeper understanding of Byzantine and post-Byzantine material culture, offering insights into artistic practice, regional variation, and the evolving role of manuscripts until the age of print. Our study provides valuable information about the techniques and materials used in manuscript creation, while also assessing their preservation status. The inks used in the texts were identified, including cinnabar for red inks and iron gall ink for black-brown inks. Additionally, a variety of pigments commonly used during that period were determined, such as green earth and orpiment, which were found in the manuscripts.