Implantable Self-Powered Sensing Technologies in the Diagnosis of Vascular Diseases

The long-term management of vascular diseases, as well as of patients after interventional or surgical treatment, relies heavily on continuous monitoring of hemodynamics and luminal status, whereas conventional imaging follow-up and in vitro examinations are limited in temporal resolution, patient compliance, and early-warning capability. In recent years, self-powered technologies, including triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs), pyroelectric nanogenerators (PyNGs), and biofuel cells, have enabled direct harvesting of energy from physiological mechanical sources such as vascular pulsation and blood-flow shear. These devices operate without batteries, and their output signals themselves serve as sensing indicators of vascular status, offering a new paradigm for continuous, in situ, noninvasive, and even implantable diagnosis of vascular diseases. This review systematically summarizes the research progress of implantable self-powered sensing technologies in the diagnosis of vascular diseases. It first describes the energy conversion mechanisms and device design principles of triboelectric, piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and bioelectrochemical approaches; it then highlights representative diagnostic applications in blood pressure and blood-flow monitoring, detection of vascular stenosis and restenosis, thrombosis monitoring, and assessment of stent and graft patency; finally, it discusses the challenges in biocompatibility, long-term stability, wireless transmission, miniaturization, and standardization, and outlines future directions involving integration with artificial intelligence, multimodal sensing, and interventional devices.