Immigration and Immigration Control

Abstract

Migration in the 21st century encompasses the entire globe. Long-term migration, defined as a stay of more than 1 year, accounts for 304 million individuals in 2024, or about 3.7% of the global population. On a per capita basis, immigrants are concentrated in wealthy countries in Oceania, North America, Europe, and North Africa and the Middle East. The largest numbers of immigrants originate in poorer countries of Europe, Central and Southern Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and North Africa and the Middle East. Forced migrants and refugees are a subset of the total immigrant population. The combined number of refugees and asylum seekers (including Palestinians and Venezuelans) is 51.2 million, or around 17% of the total immigrant population. Most reside in countries of the Global South. A variety of theories explicate why people move across international borders. Economic reasons are important, although researchers examine both individual determinants and family decision-making. Migrant networks also play an important role in facilitating cross-border flows. Structural features of the global economy, such as dual labor markets and the penetration of capitalist markets, provide a pull toward a destination country or a push for individuals to move from their origin country. One model that combines the various theoretical strands is the aspirations and capabilities framework that incorporates both individual determinants of migration and structural opportunities and barriers. States play a central role in migration governance. A basic distinction is between origin countries and destination countries (as well as transit countries). In the late 20th and early 21st century, destination countries have, on average, sought to select migrants more narrowly and enforce controls over undocumented immigration more vigorously, while origin countries have opened their doors for citizens to depart. Most research focuses on destination countries and examines the determinants of immigration control policies. Several theoretical models are proposed: domestic politics are seen as central to policy choice and include attention to special interests, public opinion, and national identity. Security concerns and the national interest also play a role. Domestic and international institutions and norms complement the focus on domestic politics. Postcolonial and decolonial frames have been added to and challenge the research originating in the Global North. Global migration governance, or cooperation among states, on migration issues is important. Given the patterns of migratory flows, the externalities of migration tend to be bilateral rather than multilateral so that interstate cooperation tends to be bilateral rather than multilateral, and cooperation often facilitates closure rather than openness to immigration. Regional economic organizations offer a more proximate location for states to manage migration cooperatively.