How Is Upper-Limb Involvement Addressed During Sit-to-Stand Assessment After Stroke? A Scoping Review of Methodological Approaches

Background/Objectives: The sit-to-stand task is widely used to assess functional performance after stroke; however, how upper-limb involvement is addressed methodologically during this transition remains unclear. This study aimed to map how upper-limb postural orientation has been considered, operationalised and controlled during sit-to-stand assessment in individuals after stroke, with particular attention to experimental protocols, assessment instruments, and biomechanical outcome measures. Methods: A scoping review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines, and the literature search was performed using PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. Results: Across the 10 included studies, 264 unique individuals after stroke were assessed from eight independent samples (sample-weighted mean age: 60.2 years). Three studies shared the same participant cohort and were counted once in all aggregate figures. Most studies adopted cross-sectional observational designs (n = 7), and laboratory-based biomechanical settings were the most common assessment context (n = 6). Upper-limb conditions were explicitly reported in all studies but were predominantly constrained or standardised, most frequently with the arms crossed over the chest (n = 4). Only four studies compared different upper-limb conditions. Instrumented assessments primarily relied on 3D motion analysis systems and force platforms, whereas clinical assessments focused mainly on temporal performance measures. Comprehensive 3D analyses of upper-limb contribution and multi-segmental coordination remain scarce. Conclusions: This scoping review reveals limited and methodologically heterogeneous evidence on upper-limb involvement during sit-to-stand assessment after stroke, underscoring the need for greater methodological clarity and biomechanical characterisation.