“How can a prince become a queen?”: Gender exploration and empowerment amongst VTuber live streamers

“VTubers” are live streamers who use 2D or 3D digital avatars to interact with audiences in real time. In this study we investigate how VTubers construct gender representations in online spaces, showing that the creation of a VTuber’s online gender is not static, but rather a dynamic process that adapts through interactions between the avatar’s design and fictive persona, their “offline” identity, and viewer engagement. We also demonstrate that while VTubers are afforded the ability to explore fluid and non-binary gender presentations, their portrayals are often sexualised. Equally, while certain VTubers foster inclusive spaces that celebrate diverse identities, others limit explicit audience expressions of gender empowerment by enforcing chat guidelines, highlighting the complexity of this area. This study thus contributes to scholarship on identity construction in avatar-mediated spaces, offering insights into how VTubers as gender representations both reflect and redefine online gender identities, especially concerning marginalised groups within live-streaming communities.