Household composition, prenatal stress, and offspring emotional and behavioral problems in the
ECHO
cohort
Irene Tung, Alison E. Hipwell, Haozuo Zhao, Noya Galai, Alexandra D. W. Sullivan, Bianca P. Acevedo, Candice Norcott, Lauren C. Shuffrey, Lisa A. Croen, Luke P. Grosvenor, Michele D. Levine, Nicole R. Bush, Patricia A. Brennan, Sarah Dee Geiger, Stephanie D. Stepp, Background
Prenatal stress is associated with child emotional and behavioral problems, yet the social‐environmental contexts shaping these associations remain understudied. This study examined whether household composition during pregnancy moderates associations between neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage, prenatal stress, and early childhood mental health outcomes.
Methods
We analyzed data from 4,320 mother–child dyads from the prospective longitudinal Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) cohort across 16 United States sites. Pregnant participants (mean age at delivery = 30.3 years) were enrolled between 2010 and 2021 and followed through early childhood of offspring (49% female). Exposures included neighborhood socioeconomic status (CDC Social Vulnerability Index), prenatal stress (Perceived Stress Scale), and household composition (solo, couple‐only, extended‐couple, or shared adults). Outcomes were child emotional and behavioral problems at ages 1.5–5 years (Child Behavior Checklist/Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire). Structural equation modeling tested direct, indirect, and moderation pathways.
Results
Neighborhood disadvantage was associated with elevated prenatal stress and child emotional and behavioral problems, and prenatal stress was associated with both child emotional and behavioral problems. After adjusting for prenatal stress, direct associations between neighborhood disadvantage and child outcomes were attenuated and no longer significant, instead emerging as indirect effects mediated through prenatal stress (emotional: B = 0.009, p = .020; behavioral: B = 0.010, p = .021). Child sex did not moderate any pathways. Household composition significantly moderated prenatal stress associations with child outcomes, with stronger associations among pregnant individuals living alone (emotional: β = 0.417, p < .001; behavioral: β = 0.453, p < .001) versus those living with other adults (emotional: β = 0.095, p < .001; behavioral: β = 0.094, p < .001). Couple‐only households showed the clearest buffering effects, particularly for child behavior problems ( β = −0.621, p = .016).
Conclusions
Neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with child emotional and behavioral problems through elevated prenatal stress. Living with other adults during pregnancy may buffer associations between prenatal stress and child mental health outcomes. Pregnant individuals living alone may benefit from targeted social support interventions.