Heat Stress in Dairy Cattle Production: A View from the Perspective of Sustainable Development

Climate change is transforming heat stress (HS) from a seasonal challenge into a major constraint on the sustainability of dairy cattle production. Increasing temperatures, more frequent and prolonged heat waves, and reduced opportunities for nocturnal recovery adversely affect animal health, welfare, productivity, reproductive performance, and resource-use efficiency. This narrative review provides an integrated critical synthesis of current evidence on HS in dairy cattle within a sustainable development framework. It examines the biological mechanisms underlying disruption of homeostasis together with the consequences for milk production, product quality, health, welfare, reproduction, and developmental programming. The review further evaluates biomarkers of thermal adaptation, precision livestock farming, and environmental, nutritional, managerial, genetic, and technological mitigation strategies, considering their biological effectiveness, practical applicability, economic feasibility, and environmental trade-offs. Rather than addressing these components independently, the review integrates their interactions within an original conceptual framework and comparatively evaluates adaptation strategies to support practical decision-making. Current evidence indicates that sustainable climate adaptation requires integrated, context-specific approaches combining environmental management, nutrition, genetic improvement, precision monitoring, and digital technologies. Future progress will increasingly depend on advances in omics, artificial intelligence, and predictive livestock management to enhance climate resilience while improving productivity, animal welfare, and environmental sustainability.