Geospatial modelling of water infrastructure heritage distribution VIA NNDI-KDE-GeoDetector

Understanding the spatial distribution of water infrastructure heritage is crucial for its conservation in large regions. This study analyses 147 water infrastructure heritage sites in the Shandong section of the Yellow River Basin using an integrated nearest neighbour distance index (NNDI)–kernel density estimation (KDE)–GeoDetector framework. Spatial techniques, including NNDI and KDE, reveal that sites display a statistically significant clustered pattern described as ‘large aggregation, small dispersion’, forming a spatial layout of ‘three cores and one line’. GeoDetector analysis quantitatively shows that anthropogenic engineering factors, especially water infrastructure systems (q = 0.92), are the primary determinants of distribution, while natural geographical elements serve as secondary constraints. This integrated framework outperforms traditional single-method analyses, offering a robust tool for conservation planning, sustainable tourism, and heritage management in complex river basins. The methodology also provides a transferable model for analysing water infrastructure heritage in other major river systems globally.