Fusing Multispectral UAV and Satellite Imagery to Improve the Discrimination of Vachellia karroo in Savanna and Grassland Ecosystems

Effective control and management of the encroaching and invasive Vachellia karroo (V. karroo) in grassland and savanna biomes depends on accurate information about its spatial distribution, making remote sensing approaches essential for mapping the extent of affected areas. Although Sentinel-2 satellite data are widely used for land use and land cover applications, they often lack the spatial details required to distinguish woody species like V. karroo. The fusion of Sentinel-2 data with high-resolution UAV imagery offers a promising approach to enhance spectral information for species-level discrimination. This study evaluated UAV, Sentinel-2, and fused UAV–Sentinel-2 imagery for discrimination of V. karroo in grassland and savanna biomes of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Field data and imagery were collected in October 2022 and classified using Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithms to distinguish V. karroo. The findings showed that V. karroo was more prevalent in the savanna biome. SVM marginally outperformed RF in classifying V. karroo in the grassland biome, achieving overall accuracies ranging from 68.9% to 97.4%, compared to 57.8% to 97.4% for RF. Among the datasets, the fused UAV–Sentinel-2 images yielded the highest classification accuracy, with an overall accuracy of 97.4% and a kappa coefficient of 0.96. The UAV images also demonstrated high classification accuracy, with an overall accuracy of 91.67% and a kappa coefficient of 0.77, confirming its value for fine-scale mapping and reference data support. In contrast, the Sentinel-2 images produced lower classification accuracy, with an overall accuracy of 84.6% and a kappa coefficient of 0.75, mainly due to their coarser spatial resolution. Classification was more challenging in the savanna site, where mixed vegetation structure increased confusion between V. karroo and grass. These findings show that fused UAV–Sentinel-2 images can improve species-level discrimination, while UAV and Sentinel-2 data remain complementary for fine-scale mapping and broader monitoring of bush encroachment in grassland and savanna ecosystems.