From wood to war-the science of bow-making in pre-colonial India: Technology, artisans, and the political economy of warfare

The study highlights the science and technology used in bow-making, particularly in regions such as Badaun, where ecological conditions—abundant forests, rivers, and wildlife—provided essential raw materials like wood, horn, sinew, and animal hides. These environmental advantages enabled the production of superior composite bows, especially in comparison with regions lacking such resources. The analysis further shows how regional variations in climate influenced production techniques, such as the use of glue in drier regions like Delhi and nails in humid areas like Bengal. A central focus of the study is the technical training and knowledge transmission within Mughal kārkhānas and artisan lineages. Apprentices underwent rigorous instruction in material selection, bow construction, glue preparation, and string-making, as well as in the precise measurement, balance, and geometric alignment required for effective performance. The craft was governed by a rich technical vocabulary and standardized proportions, combined with empirical methods of testing and refinement. This reflects a high degree of specialization and an applied understanding of mechanics and material science within artisanal practice. The profession of bow-making was further imbued with cultural and moral value, attracting individuals from diverse social backgrounds, including religious scholars and nobles. In addition to their functional role, bows and arrows were also objects of artistic expression and political symbolism. Naqqāshs enhanced their aesthetic appeal through intricate decoration, transforming weapons into markers of prestige and authority. The study thus underscores the interconnectedness of craftsmanship, warfare, and state power, demonstrating that the success of the Mughal military system depended not only on strategic and technological innovation but also on the expertise and labour of its artisan communities.