Factors affecting the adoption of climate smart aquaculture ( CSAq ) practices among pond fish farmers in Nepal

Abstract

Aquaculture is an important sector for Nepal's economy and rural livelihoods, but its long‐term sustainability is increasingly threatened by climate change. Climate Smart Aquaculture (CSAq) has emerged as a promising approach for adaptation, mitigation and productivity enhancement. The present study aims to identify the factors that affect both adoption and the intensity of CSAq practices among pond fish farmers. Using a multistage random sampling procedure, 402 pond fish farmers across four districts (Kailali, Rupandehi, Bara and Morang) were interviewed in 2025 using a semi‐structured questionnaire. A Multivariate Probit model was employed to identify factors affecting the adoption of six CSAq practices, which included integrated water quality management (IWQM), improved feed (IF), agroforestry (AF), renewable energy (RE), insurance (IN) and integrated farming (INF). An Ordered Probit model was used to assess adoption intensity. Overall adoption of CSAq practices was low (30%–35% per practice). Age, education, farm size, membership in farmer groups/cooperatives, contact with extension workers, ICT use and farmers' perceptions on climate risks and benefits of CSAq significantly influenced adoption decisions. Adoption intensity was positively and significantly influenced by age ( p  < 0.10), membership in farmer groups/cooperatives ( p  < 0.01), contacts with extension workers ( p  < 0.01), ICT use ( p  < 0.01) and farm size ( p  < 0.01), while farming experience ( p  < 0.10) and distance to the agrovet ( p  < 0.01) showed a negative influence. These findings underscore the need for integrated institutional support through strengthened extension services, farmer groups/cooperatives, digital information systems and improved input market access to promote CSAq adoption.