Extracellular vesicles derived from edible plants and edible fungi: Compositional characteristics, engineering strategies and biofunctions

Abstract

Animal‐derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were widely used for bioactive compound delivery but constrained by complex origins, potential immunogenicity, and pathogen contamination. Non‐animal extracellular vesicles (nAEVs) from edible plants and fungi contained natural membranes and endogenous bioactive compounds but required engineering to improve loading, processing/gastrointestinal stability, uptake, and release. This review compared biogenesis, composition, isolation, and processing stability and analyzed how composition, bioactive compound properties, and major losses affected engineering selection. Results showed nAEVs were obtained directly from edible materials and retained endogenous bioactive compounds, whereas cell‐wall release, membrane‐lipid differences, and raw‐material status affected yield, membrane stability, bioactive compound partitioning, and functional retention, creating engineering conditions distinct from animal EVs. Load and formulation engineering improved hydrophobic molecule encapsulation, stability, and release through passive incubation, microfluidics, sonication, coating, or gelation, supporting food processing, gastrointestinal delivery, and sustained local release. Interface and structural engineering enhanced uptake, local retention, and recognition through ligand‐bearing lipid insertion or membrane fusion, supporting anti‐inflammatory, tissue‐repair, and antiproliferative interventions. Compared with unmodified nAEVs, engineering enhanced antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, repair, antibacterial, and antiproliferative effects by increasing bioactive compounds' stability, effective exposure, and cellular interactions. nAEVs provided food‐derived carriers; engineering conferred controllable loading, recognition, retention, and release for bioactive‐compound development and utilization.