Environmental Impacts of Ivermectin on Dung Beetles and Ecosystem Services

Rising global populations have intensified pressure on food systems, leading to agricultural intensification and increased use of chemicals and veterinary drugs to boost productivity. In livestock production, gastrointestinal parasites pose a major challenge and are commonly managed using anthelminthic drugs such as ivermectin. Although highly effective, ivermectin persists in the environment and harms non-target organisms, including dung beetles. Because dung beetles play key ecological roles, the presence of ivermectin in excreted dung threatens their survival and compromises ecological functions. Here, we review the use of ivermectin as an anthelminthic, its environmental persistence, and its effects on dung beetle survival and ecosystem services. To achieve this, a systematic literature search was done using keywords/phrases; the literature was screened following set inclusion and exclusion criteria, leading to information synthesis using 157 papers published between 2009 and 2026. Results showed that ivermectin was the most efficacious (>90%) compared to other anthelmintics. It is persistent in dung, soil and aquatic ecosystems with residue concentrations of 0.81 mg/kg, 0.085 mg/kg dry weight, and 1.24 ng/L, respectively, detected in samples. Lethal effects vary depending on species, with mortalities of up to 94.1% for Copris acutidens, while sublethal effects include suppressed reproductive capacity and net population decline, ultimately affecting ecosystem service delivery. More research is needed to better understand how ivermectin interacts with other agricultural chemicals, climate change, and anthropogenic activities and likely effects dung beetles’ ecology. These insights are essential for informing policy on sustainable and judicious use of veterinary drugs, raising awareness and preventing environmental, economic and environmental health risks associated with the decline of dung beetles and their ecosystem services.