Environmental Contaminants in Surface Snow Samples Made from Reclaimed Water at a Ski Resort: A Mass Spectrometry Analysis

Abstract

Artificial snowmaking is used by winter recreation resorts to elongate the ski season in areas that lack sufficient snow, yet the occurrence of contaminants in artificial snow remains largely uncharacterized. Contaminants in artificial snow can lead to the introduction of pollutants into surrounding ecosystems (e.g., plants, water streams, soils) or create pathways for human exposure. Using the Arizona Snowbowl Ski Resort in Flagstaff, Arizona, as a case study, we characterized the chemical (organic and inorganic) profile of snow made from reclaimed water samples as compared to natural snow samples. Pharmaceuticals and anthropogenic compounds were identified in snowmaking from reclaimed water samples using nontargeted mass spectrometry paired with molecular networking, and identities of selected compounds were confirmed and quantified using targeted mass spectrometry alongside authentic chemical standards. Nineteen pharmaceuticals were found to be increased in high artificial snowmaking samples as compared to natural snow, including carbamazepine, fexofenadine, flecainide, and lamotrigine, which were present at low ng/L concentrations in one set of high artificial snowmaking samples. A suite of inorganic contaminants was also assessed and quantified using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to reveal that nine metals─sodium, phosphorus, potassium, chromium, manganese, iron, zinc, arsenic, and barium─were increased in abundance in high artificial snowmaking samples compared to levels in normal snow. Taken together, this study suggests that snow made from reclaimed water may contain anthropogenic organic and inorganic analytes, warranting further study on their environmental and human health effects.