End-of-Life Management of Photovoltaic Modules: Recycling, Second-Life Applications, and Disposal

The rapid global expansion of photovoltaic (PV) systems, driven by rising energy demand, is expected to generate substantial module waste at end-of-life, with global PV waste projected to exceed 4 million tonnes by 2030, 50 million by 2040, and 200 million tonnes by 2050. Based on 105 sources identified through a structured, keyword-based Google Scholar search complemented by backward reference screening, this review provides a comparative, literature-based assessment of recycling, second-life applications, and disposal as end-of-life (EoL) management strategies for PV modules, examining the relationship between module structure, waste management pathways, material recovery potential, and the technical and economic limitations of current practices. Recycling offers clear environmental benefits but remains economically constrained in many scenarios by high process costs and the complexity of separating laminated module structures. Second-life application emerges as a complementary strategy, delaying the premature entry of modules retaining residual functionality into the waste stream and enhancing resource efficiency. Nevertheless, landfilling continues to account for the majority of global PV waste despite the availability of more sustainable alternatives, revealing a marked gap between technical potential and field-level practice. Overall, no single approach is sufficient; effective PV waste management requires an integrated strategy combining recycling, second-life applications, and disposal in line with circular economy principles.