Effects of a Concept-Oriented AR/VR Instructional Framework for Electricity Learning on Ninth-Grade Students’ Science Achievement and Learning Motivation

This study developed and evaluated a concept-oriented electricity learning system integrating augmented reality (AR) and non-immersive virtual reality (VR) technologies to support different conceptual learning requirements in the “Basic Electrostatic Phenomena and Electrical Circuits” unit. In the proposed framework, AR supported hands-on circuit construction and visualization of invisible electrical phenomena, whereas non-immersive VR was used for voltage measurement and Ohm’s law experimentation through repeated and controllable exploration. A quasi-experimental design was conducted with 87 ninth-grade students from a public junior high school in Taiwan. Two classes were assigned to the experimental group and two to the control group. The intervention lasted five instructional sessions (225 min). Data were collected using an Electricity Achievement Test and a Science Learning Motivation Questionnaire and analyzed using ANCOVA. The results indicated that the experimental group achieved significantly higher science achievement and learning motivation than the control group. Significant improvements were observed in overall science achievement and across all electricity topics, including basic circuit concepts, voltage and current measurement, and resistance and Ohm’s law concepts. The findings suggest that these learning benefits may be associated with the alignment between technological affordances and conceptual learning requirements. Consistent with the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, Cognitive Load Theory, and Conceptual Change Theory, the framework may have supported learning through visualization, interaction, experimentation, and conceptual change. This study contributes to educational technology and science education research in two ways. First, it proposes a concept-oriented AR/VR framework that systematically aligns technological affordances with conceptual learning tasks and processing demands in electricity education. Second, it provides empirical evidence for the value of concept-oriented technology integration in supporting science achievement and learning motivation. The findings highlight the importance of aligning technological affordances with conceptual learning requirements when designing technology-enhanced science learning environments.