Ecotoxicological Impacts of Modern Agrochemicals Across the Agro-Food Chain: A One Health Perspective

Modern agrochemicals support crop productivity and food security, yet their residues, transformation products and formulation components can move through the agro-food chain and affect plants, soil organisms, wildlife, livestock and people. This review addresses a persistent gap in the literature: most existing assessments examine single compounds, single organisms or single environmental compartments in isolation, whereas real-world exposure spans the entire agro-food chain and connects plant, animal, environmental and human health. To address this gap, this review was designed as an integrative, One-Health-oriented synthesis of the original evidence assembled on organophosphate, neonicotinoid and glyphosate-based products, covering environmental fate, exposure pathways, molecular toxicity, non-target effects and ecosystem consequences. The main body of work consists of a structured literature research and comparative evidence assessment across laboratory, mesocosm and field studies, from which a cross-level evaluation was constructed: oxidative stress, neurotoxocity, endocrine and immune disruption, soil microbiome alteration, pollinator and aquatic biodiversity loss, food and feed residues, antimicrobial-resistance pathways and insecticide resistance affecting disease vectors. Particular attention is given to formulation effects, mixtures, chronic low-dose exposure and the distinction between contaminant removal, transformation, detoxification and mineralisation. Finally, the review evaluates integrated pest management, precision application, biological control, phytoremediation, nanotechnology-assisted treatment and synthetic-biology-enabled bioremediation. The synthesis identifies evidence gaps in field-scale validation, mixture toxicity, One Health surveillance and regulatory integration and proposes priorities for safer agrochemical use, environmental monitoring and ecosystem-based risk reduction.