Ecological Basis and Aquaculture Use of Copepods as Live Feed with Emphasis on Nutritional Value, Production Constraints, and Future Directions

Copepods are a good live feed for aquaculture because they feed a variety of fish and crustacean larvae. Their roles in larviculture are explained by their ecological role in the transfer of energy from primary producers to higher trophic levels. Copepods exhibit higher levels of protein, amino acid profiles, digestive enzymes, and essential fatty acids, such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which are critical for larval growth, neural development, stress resilience, and survival, when compared to conventional live feeds like rotifers and Artemia nauplii. Despite all of these advantages, copepod use is constrained by significant production constraints. Complex life cycles, sensitivity to environmental changes, changes in the nutritional makeup of algal diets, and difficulties achieving reliable high-density production are some of the difficulties that mass culture faces. The persistent obstacles continue to restrict their widespread commercial use. This review summarizes what is currently known about the ecological importance of copepods, assesses their nutritional value and production limitations, and suggests important lines of inquiry to improve their widespread use as sustainable live feed in aquaculture.