Does the Gender Equality Paradox in Personality Manifest at the Within-Country Regional Level? Insights From Germany, Russia, and the United States

The aim of this study was to contribute to the understanding of the gender equality paradox by examining within-country variation in the size of the gender gap in Five-Factor Model (FFM) personality traits across regions in three geographically large and socially diverse countries, and to explore whether this variation was associated with various regional-level indicators. Multilevel analyses were conducted to assess regional gender differences in FFM personality trait scores using data from Germany (four datasets), Russia (one dataset), and the US (two datasets). Samples ranged from 6,476 to 29,398, with data collected between 2005 and 2017. When the size of gender differences varied across regions, we examined whether this variation was associated with regional indices of human development (SHDI) and its subcomponents, gender equality, individualism/collectivism, and survival/self-expression values. Regional variation in gender differences was most consistent for Neuroticism, Openness, and Conscientiousness. In several datasets, regions with higher educational attainment, health, and individualism showed larger gender differences in these traits, consistent with the direction of the gender equality paradox observed across countries. These findings suggest that societal and contextual factors may contribute to gender differences in personality not only across countries but also across regions within countries.