Differential Neurophysiological and Autonomic Responses to Electric, Hybrid, and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles During Real-World Driving Testing: A Multimodal Psychophysiological Study

The transition from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles toward hybrid and battery electric vehicles is reshaping both automotive engineering and the sensory experience of driving, yet its neurophysiological consequences remain underexplored. This single-subject, repeated-measures study investigated the neurophysiological and autonomic responses of one professional driver across 37 real-road sessions in three vehicle categories: electric (EV; n = 16), internal combustion engine (ICE; n = 15), and hybrid (n = 6). Electroencephalography, heart rate, heart-rate variability, galvanic skin response, and peripheral oxygen saturation were continuously recorded across three phases: a three-minute pre-drive baseline, 15–20 min of active driving, and a three-minute post-drive recovery. EEG power was analysed in the theta, alpha, low-beta, and high-beta bands. Because all sessions were completed by the same driver, vehicle group, phase, and their interactions were tested with a rank-based mixed-effects model treating vehicle session as a random intercept. Vehicle group significantly affected broadband EEG power: ICE sessions showed higher theta, low-beta, and high-beta power than EV sessions (all post hoc p ≤ 0.025), with the Hybrid group statistically intermediate; a nonparametric alpha-band effect (p ≤ 0.025) did not survive a repeated-measures-adjusted mixed-effects model (p = 0.107) and is reported with lower confidence. Galvanic skin response declined steeply and uniformly from the pre-drive baseline in every group (phase p < 0.001), whereas heart-rate variability (RMSSD) increased during active driving (p = 0.013). No modality showed a significant Group × Phase interaction (all p ≥ 0.053). Within this single-driver protocol, propulsion type was systematically associated with cortical arousal—ICE imposing a higher cortical load than EV—while autonomic session dynamics were uniform across vehicle types; findings cannot be generalized beyond this driver.