Development of a Low-Cost 3D-Printed Fracture Reduction Simulator Using a Human Factors Approach

Simulation provides opportunities for repeated practice of procedural skills before patient care; however, commercially available fracture reduction trainers are often prohibitively expensive, limiting access for emergency medicine (EM) training programs. This study describes the development and formative evaluation of a low-cost, 3D-printed distal radius fracture reduction simulator designed using a human factors approach emphasizing functional task alignment and haptic fidelity. The simulator incorporated 3D-printed anatomical structures and a silicone soft tissue envelope, with a total material cost of approximately $100. Six EM attending physicians evaluated the prototype through hands-on use, Likert-type ratings of realism and educational value, and structured interviews. Skin realism received favorable ratings on a 7-point scale ( M  = 6.0), while ratings of arm movement ( M  = 4.17) and suitability for teaching ( M  = 4.83) showed areas for improvement. Expert feedback supported the simulator’s educational potential while highlighting opportunities to improve resistance, traction mechanics, and functional fidelity.