Development and evaluation of a desktop VR serious game for color composition learning in basic design education

In recent years, immersive and interactive technologies have gained increasing attention in art and design education. Desktop virtual reality (VR) offers a low-cost and accessible alternative for classroom learning, yet its use in color composition education remains underexplored. This study aimed to develop and evaluate BD-VRG, a constructivist-based desktop VR serious game for color composition learning in basic design education. BD-VRG was developed using the ADDIE instructional design model and incorporated gamified interaction and real-time feedback within a low-cost desktop VR environment. A total of 42 first-year art and design students participated in the evaluation. Data were collected on learning performance, technology acceptance, usability, technical performance, post-exposure discomfort, and qualitative user feedback. A significant short-term improvement in post-test performance was observed ( d  = 0.82). All four Technology Acceptance Model dimensions were rated significantly above the neutral midpoint, and the System Usability Scale indicated good overall usability. The system also showed stable technical performance and low post-exposure discomfort. Qualitative feedback highlighted the value of real-time learning support and engaging practice, while also pointing to the need for clearer onboarding and navigation. Overall, the findings suggest that BD-VRG is a feasible and promising approach for supporting color composition learning in basic design education. These findings further indicate that low-cost, classroom-deployable desktop VR serious games may support meaningful perceptual and interactive learning for abstract design concepts, thereby offering an accessible and pedagogically valuable approach to art and design education.