Detection Techniques for Synthetic Cannabinoids in Body Fluids and Tissues: A Systematic Review

Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs), originally developed for research purposes in the 1960s, have emerged as a significant concern in clinical and forensic toxicology due to their widespread abuse and unpredictable toxicological effects. These compounds are frequently modified to evade legal control, making detection and regulation increasingly challenging. This systematic review critically evaluates analytical techniques and sample preparation methods for detecting SCs and their metabolites in human biological matrices, with a focus on studies published between 2019 and 2023. A total of 64 peer-reviewed articles were analyzed, selected through a comprehensive search of databases including Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed. The review included quantitative and method validation studies on analytical techniques for detecting SCs in human biological matrices, excluding qualitative and non-analytical research to maintain focus. The review highlights the latest advancements in detection technologies – such as Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry, and high-resolution mass spectrometry – alongside their application in various biological specimens, including blood, urine, oral fluid, and tissue samples. Key challenges such as the rapid emergence of new SC variants, matrix complexity, and the need for method standardization are discussed. This review underscores the critical need for continuous method development and regulatory adaptation to enhance the forensic and clinical detection of SCs. Future research should focus on developing faster, more sensitive detection methods, improving the understanding of new SC variants’ toxicology, and standardizing protocols across forensic laboratories.