Decline and Renewal: From Indigenous to Emergent Economic-Cultural Systems in Neolithic Northern China

Abstract

The Neolithic evolution of northern China reveals a trajectory of decline and renewal, defined by two different regimes: the indigenous economic-cultural system and the emergent economic-cultural system. Initially, the indigenous system—characterized by dryland farming, moated settlements with semi-subterranean houses, and painted pottery—reached peak social complexity during the late Hongshan and middle Yangshao periods. However, intense inter-community competition and resource depletion triggered a synchronous regional collapse. Following this breakdown, the northern regions achieved a fundamental transformation. The emergent economic-cultural system arose, distinguished by an agropastoral economy that integrated newly introduced sheep, goats, and cattle from the Eurasian steppe. This system also featured cave-dwelling settlements and material assemblages dominated by hollow-legged tripod vessels. Highly adapted to the northern environment, this emergent system drove a second phase of social complexification during the Longshan and Lower Xiajiadian periods, supporting massive centers like Shimao. This evidence indicates that the northern transformation emerged not as a product of continuous linear evolution, but as a fundamental historical replacement. Catalyzed by the collapse of indigenous societies and geographic proximity to the Eurasian steppe, this renewal establishes the critical foundation for China’s transition to the Bronze Age.